How maps of globe, country or region were created few decades/centuries ago when modern technology like today did not exists?

Question

What techniques were used to create the maps of a world, country or region when satellite or similar technology did not exists few decades or centuries ago?

Answer 1

You don't need satellite images to make accurate maps.

Accurate surveying techniques have been around for a very long time and are essentially based on fairy simple technology.

The basic principals of surveying require the ability to measure direction, elevation and distance relative to some fixed reference point and some basic geometry can allow you to make indirect measurements, especially of heights.

Similarly you can make up a simple sighting device with a spirit level or plumb line and have a second person with a target to sight on of known height to plot lies of equal height ie contour lines.

Land based topographical mapping really came into its own with the advent of artillery as accurate maps became a military necessity in fact in the UK the map making agency still called the Ordnance Survey.

Typically you choose a convenient local reference point and accurately determine its absolute position (ie latitude and longitude) by reference to the sun at a known time of day (or noon if you don't have an accurate chronometer) or the pole star. Then you can measure relative angles to other features using eg a theodolite and you can fix the location of any point by trigonometry without having to do a lot of actual distance measuring.

It is this combination of local measurements and the ability to fix reference points to a global coordinate system which is key to accurate large scale mapping. Often on very old maps distances are reasonably accurate but overall shapes of landmasses and coastlines are a bit distorted.